Anatomia układu odpornościowego | Immune System Anatomy

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Structure of the Immune System

The immune system is a sophisticated network of cells, tissues, and organs working together to defend the body against infections, foreign substances, and abnormal cells. It is divided into two main components:

• Primary Lymphoid Organs: These include the bone marrow and thymus, where immune cells are created and mature. In these organs, lymphocytes such as B cells and T cells develop the ability to recognize and respond to pathogens, preparing them for immune defense.
• Secondary Lymphoid Organs: These organs, including the lymph nodes, spleen, tonsils, and mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT), provide sites where immune cells interact with pathogens and initiate immune responses. In these organs, mature immune cells capture, recognize, and respond to antigens, facilitating a coordinated immune reaction.

Primary Lymphoid Organs

The primary lymphoid organs are responsible for producing and maturing immune cells, particularly lymphocytes, which are key players in adaptive immunity.

Bone Marrow

Bone marrow is a soft, spongy tissue located within the cavities of bones, especially in long bones like the femur and flat bones such as the pelvis, ribs, and sternum. It is the primary site for hematopoiesis (blood cell production), where stem cells differentiate into various blood cells, including red blood cells, platelets, and white blood cells (leukocytes), which are crucial for immune function.

• Structure: Bone marrow consists of red marrow, which is active in hematopoiesis, and yellow marrow, which primarily stores fat but can convert back to red marrow in cases of high demand for blood cell production. The stroma, a supportive tissue network in the marrow, contains cells that produce cytokines and growth factors to regulate blood cell formation.
• Function: In the bone marrow, hematopoietic stem cells differentiate into various immune cell precursors, including lymphocytes. B cells, a type of lymphocyte, mature here, acquiring the ability to recognize antigens. Once mature, B cells migrate to secondary lymphoid organs to participate in immune responses.

Thymus

The thymus is a small, bilobed organ located in the anterior mediastinum, just above the heart. It is crucial for the development and maturation of T cells, another essential type of lymphocyte involved in adaptive immunity. The thymus is most active during childhood and gradually atrophies with age, being replaced by adipose tissue in adults, although it retains some functional capacity throughout life.

• Structure: The thymus is divided into lobules, each containing an outer cortex and an inner medulla. The cortex is densely packed with immature T cells (thymocytes), while the medulla contains mature T cells and structures known as Hassall’s corpuscles, which are thought to play a role in the development of regulatory T cells.
• Function: In the thymus, immature T cells undergo a rigorous selection process, known as thymic selection, to ensure they can recognize foreign antigens while remaining tolerant of the body’s own tissues. This process prevents autoimmune reactions and results in a population of functional, self-tolerant T cells that then migrate to secondary lymphoid organs.

Secondary Lymphoid Organs

The secondary lymphoid organs provide sites where immune cells can interact with antigens and initiate adaptive immune responses. They include the lymph nodes, spleen, tonsils, and mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT).

Lymph Nodes

Lymph nodes are small, bean-shaped structures distributed throughout the body, particularly in clusters in the neck, armpits, abdomen, and groin. They filter lymph, a fluid that circulates through the lymphatic system, trapping pathogens, and foreign particles.

• Structure: Lymph nodes are encased in a fibrous capsule and divided into an outer cortex, an inner paracortex, and a medulla. The cortex contains follicles with B cells, the paracortex is rich in T cells, and the medulla contains macrophages and plasma cells.
• Function: As lymph flows through the node, antigen-presenting cells (APCs), such as dendritic cells and macrophages, capture antigens and present them to T and B cells, initiating an immune response. This leads to the activation, proliferation, and differentiation of lymphocytes, which then enter the bloodstream to reach infection sites.

Spleen

The spleen is the largest lymphoid organ, located in the upper left quadrant of the abdomen, behind the stomach. It filters blood rather than lymph, removing old red blood cells and providing a site for immune cell interactions.

• Structure: The spleen is composed of white pulp and red pulp. White pulp consists of lymphoid tissue, including T cells and B cells, organized around central arteries. Red pulp contains sinuses filled with blood and macrophages that phagocytose aged or damaged red blood cells.
• Function: In the white pulp, blood-borne antigens are captured by APCs, which present them to lymphocytes to initiate immune responses. The red pulp filters blood, removing foreign particles, and acts as a blood reservoir.

Tonsils

Tonsils are clusters of lymphoid tissue located at the entrance of the respiratory and digestive tracts. They play an essential role in protecting against inhaled or ingested pathogens.

• Structure: Tonsils contain lymphoid follicles and are covered by a layer of epithelium with deep crypts that increase surface area for trapping pathogens. The main tonsils are the palatine, pharyngeal, and lingual tonsils.
• Function: Tonsils capture pathogens and present them to immune cells, particularly B cells, which can then produce antibodies to neutralize pathogens.

Mucosa-Associated Lymphoid Tissue (MALT)

MALT is a diffuse collection of lymphoid tissue associated with mucosal surfaces, including the respiratory, gastrointestinal, and genitourinary tracts. Key components of MALT include Peyer’s patches in the intestines, bronchus-associated lymphoid tissue (BALT) in the lungs, and genitourinary lymphoid tissues.

• Structure: MALT is composed of lymphoid follicles that are similar in structure to those in lymph nodes, with B cells, T cells, and APCs organized to respond to pathogens that cross the mucosal barrier.
• Function: MALT provides a first line of defense at mucosal surfaces, capturing antigens and initiating immune responses locally. Specialized M cells in the mucosa facilitate the transport of antigens to immune cells in MALT.

Cells of the Immune System

The immune system comprises a diverse array of cells, each playing a vital role in protecting the body from infections, malignancies, and other harmful agents. These cells can be broadly categorized into innate immune cells, which provide rapid, non-specific defense, and adaptive immune cells, which offer highly specific and long-lasting immunity. Below is a comprehensive overview of the various immune cells, detailing their roles and interactions within the immune response.

Innate Immune Cells

Innate immune cells are responsible for the body’s first line of defense, providing an immediate but generalized response to invading pathogens. They do not require prior exposure to a pathogen to act, making them crucial in early defense.

Adaptive Immune Cells

Adaptive immune cells are responsible for generating highly specific immune responses that provide long-term protection. Their actions are tailored to target specific pathogens, and they also develop immunological memory, which allows for quicker responses upon re-exposure.

• B Cells: A type of lymphocyte responsible for humoral immunity. B cells differentiate into plasma cells, which produce antibodies that specifically bind to antigens. Antibodies neutralize pathogens and mark them for destruction by other immune cells. B cells also form memory cells, which provide rapid responses if the same pathogen reappears.

• T Cells: T cells are central to cell-mediated immunity and are divided into several subtypes, each with a unique function:
  • Helper T Cells (CD4+): These cells play a crucial role in coordinating immune responses by releasing cytokines that stimulate other immune cells, such as B cells, cytotoxic T cells, and macrophages.
  • Cytotoxic T Cells (CD8+): These T cells directly kill infected or abnormal cells, such as those harboring viruses or showing signs of malignancy, by releasing perforin and granzymes that induce apoptosis (cell death).
  • Regulatory T Cells (Tregs): Tregs are essential for maintaining immune homeostasis. They help prevent autoimmune diseases by suppressing excessive immune responses and ensuring self-tolerance.

Other Key Immune Cells and Components

Molecular Components of the Immune Response

The cells of the immune system work in concert with various molecular components that help coordinate, amplify, and regulate the immune response.

• Cytokines: These are small proteins secreted by immune cells that facilitate communication between cells. They regulate inflammation, promote the activation and differentiation of immune cells, and guide the movement of cells to sites of infection or injury.
• Complement System: A group of proteins that enhances the ability of antibodies and phagocytic cells to clear microbes and damaged cells, promote inflammation, and attack the pathogen’s plasma membrane. Complement proteins circulate in an inactive form but become activated in response to infection.
• Antibodies: Y-shaped proteins produced by plasma cells that specifically recognize and bind to antigens. Antibodies play a pivotal role in neutralizing pathogens, marking them for phagocytosis, and activating the complement system to enhance immune responses.